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Reading Guide

 

Granada - Do & See

It is possible to explore the city by foot, though you may find a local guide useful to make good use of your time in town.
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  • The Alhambra
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  • Albayzín
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  • Plaza Larga Market
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  • Arco De Las Pesas
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  • Mirador de San Nicolás
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  • Sacromonte
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  • Nasrid Wall
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  • Generalife Garden
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  • Mosque of Granada
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  • Alcaiceria
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  • Museo Cuevas del Sacromonte
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  • Carrera del Darro

GRANADA

*currently revising this content.

MADRID

Welcome to Madrid, Spain.

12:40 Arrive - Taxi from airport and Checkin to hotel.
The Islamic origin of Madrid is integrated here in a welcome city tour, passing through the capital's most popular highlights, and key areas. *This tour includes the recently declared UNESCO World Heritage Site, "Paseo de Las Luces" , from Madrid-Atocha Train Station to Palacio de Cibeles, passing by the Arts District, Paseo del Prado and Botanic Garden of Maddrid.
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  • Madjrid as a Ribayat fort city, defending Umayyad Al-Andalus. | MADRID, FROM ISLAMIC FORT, TO CAPITAL OF SPAIN TODAY
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  • Ofiicial Madrid Bus Tour - 10%OFF | Madrid City Tour
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  • Madrid Panoramic Tour
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  • Tours From Madrid > Book Now Tickets > The Yellow Tours

Madrid Islamic Highlights & Other Landmarks

CALLE MAYOR & PLAZA MAYOR
Calle Mayor is probably the most historic street in Madrid; dating back to the Middle Ages, it had changed greatly with time, and now the facades of many of the buildings date back to the early 19th century, when cars first started cruising around the Spanish capital. Calle Mayor is also important due to its location, connecting the Royal Palace to Plaza del Sol. Walking down the street in this direction, you will find several places of interest to the right; after passing the military HQ and a few religious buildings, you will come to an open square with a picturesque building at the back, and a statue standing in front of it, almost in the middle of the square. This statue represents Quevedo, a famous Spanish literary figure from Madrid, and the building is the former Town Hall, which was moved a few years ago to Palacio Cibeles.
PLAZA MAYOR:
Plaza Mayor (Main Square) is surrounded by residential buildings that overhang a covered pavement that runs around the whole square, bursting with restaurants and café terraces.Built over the original Plaza del Arrabal, it was the scene of manyauto-da-feevents, at which ‘heretics’ (secret Muslims and Jews) were condemned at tribunals of the Spanish Inquisition. Today it has lost its eerie connotations, and the varied seasonal markets and events regularly held here make Plaza Mayor a reference point in Madrid.
If you cross the square to its southernmost entrance and go down the steps, you can walk down to Calle Toledo, a street that leads to our next stop, Puerta de Toledo, which will allow us to expand a little on our ongoing topic of Madrid as an Islamic citadel.
PUERTA DE TOLEDO (Bab Tulaytulah):
‘Is this really an Islamic gateway?’ you may well ask, since nowadays it looks more like anarc de triomphe, a tribute to the city of Madrid’s historic origins. This is a good place to start understanding Madrid from its roots as an Islamic medina. We are close to the original palace founded in Umayyad times, currently the Spanish monarchy’s residence, Palacio de Oriente.
PUERTA DE ALCALÁ: (Bab Alqala’at):
This emblematic Neoclassical monument retains nothing more than the memory of the original foundation of the city of Madrid. A silent witness to centuries of history, it has been referred to in pop songs since the 70s, yet still bears scars from bullets from the Spanish Civil war in the 1930s, visible as patches in the granite. The Puerta de Alcalá thus embodies Spain’s heritage all the way from its roots through its Neoclassical architectural elements and up to the present.
PARQUE DEL RETIRO:
Retiro Park was made by and for the monarchs. These recreational grounds were where Spanish kings and queens came to escape their urban routines and enjoy riding, outdoor games, or hunting, until the mid 17thcentury, when the royal family donated it to the city of Madrid. Since then it has been a public park.
CALLE ALCALÁ:
The longest street in Madrid is Calle Alcalá, which begins at the Puerta del Sol and leads northwest. It intersects Paseo del Prado at Cibeles Square, and its main highlight is the Puerta de Alcalá, the gateway to Alcalá. This was the original entrance to the Islamic city, from Alcalá la Real, a city that lies some 40 km away from Madrid in that direction. Alcalá comes from the Arabic wordal-qala’a, meaning ‘the fortress or castle’. There are many towns and cities in Spain whose names contain this reference in their names, hinting at their Arabic and Muslim roots.
CASA ÁRABE:
A visit to the Casa Árabe (Arabic House) is also fascinating for tourists interested in Spain’s relationship with the Muslim world: this is a public Spanish consortium headed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. A strategic centre in Spain’s relations with the Arab world, this meeting point is where various private and public agents and institutions – in the spheres of education, academia, business, culture and politics – can come together, dialogue, and develop joint projects.C/ Alcalá, 62. 28009 · Madrid +34 91 563 30 66 info@casaarabe.es
PLAZA DE TOROS DE LAS VENTAS:
This is our first example of Mudéjar art, and it allows us to explore the fusion of the unique cultural heritage to be found in modern Spain. Mudéjar – from the Arabic term meaning ‘adopted’ or ‘integrated’ – refers to Spanish art made after the end of the political state of al-Andalus, but based on Islamic inspirations, techniques, or motifs – and even, initially at least, created by the Muslim craftsmen who had remained in Spain after theReconquista.
Madrid’s bullring was constructed in 1925 at the same time as Plaza de España, which was built to a very similar design; the two buildings were the centrepieces of Seville’s ‘World Ibero-Latin Expo’ that year, an event that was intended to present Spain and Hispanic American countries to the rest of the world. The results of that exhibition were strongly affected by the Wall Street crash of the same year.
MEZQUITA M-30:
This is the main mosque in Madrid, founded and maintained by the Saudi Kingdom for Spanish Muslims, and inaugurated in the late 1980s. The complex contains not only a large prayer room with a ladies area upstairs, but also a library, offices, shower rooms, toilets andwudu’facilities in which about 50 people can perform their ablution simultaneously. The complex also boasts a café and restaurant. On our tour we usually stop here for a few minutes to pray before continuing with our exploration of Madrid from its Muslim roots to the present day.
Mezquita de la M-30 mosque and cultural centre, C/Salvador de Madariaga, 4
Tel: 913262610
PASEO DE RECOLETOS – PASEO DE LA CASTELLANA:
Paseo de Recoletos is often confused with Paseo de la Castellana or Paseo del Prado, although this is not surprising, as it is essentially the same avenue. From Atocha through to the north of Madrid, it is first called Avenida del Prado, then once it reaches Plaza de Cibeles and passes through the city centre it is called Paseo de Recoletos, while further north, after passing Nuevos Ministerios, it becomes Paseo de la Castellana, ending at the northernmost point of Madrid at Plaza de Castilla.
NUEVOS MINISTERIOS:
In the Chamberí district of Madrid, just off Paseo de la Castellana, we find Nuevos Ministerios (‘New Ministries’), one of the most important governmental buildings in the capital that now houses the Ministries of Employment Development and Social Security. Construction began in 1933, and despite being halted during the civil war, the complex was eventually finished in 1942. Nearby we can also find the Nuevos Ministerios station, a transport interchange connecting bus, metro, and local train services.
SANTIAGO BERNABEU STADIUM:
The Santiago Bernabeu stadium is the grounds of the Real Madrid football club, and is categorised by UEFA as an ‘élite stadium’ – the highest rank. With a maximum capacity of 81,044 spectators, it is situated on the Paseo de la Castellana, in the Chamartín district. It was inaugurated on the 14thof December, 1947.
An official tour of the stadium can be made independently. The €21 cost includes access to the stadium, and arrows point the way so you can carry out the tour at your own pace, passing through various areas and the field itself, and even the trainers’ seats. The tour comes to an end at the Real Madrid Official Store, on the opposite end of the stadium to the main entrance.
PLAZA CASTILLA:
This public square is a landmark at the very north of the Spanish capital city, named after the central kingdom of former Iberia, Castilla. Some of the highest buildings in Madrid can be found on this square, which are its main attraction. The Puerta de Europa (Gate of Europe) – also colloquially called the Kío Towers – are a pair of skyscrapers that stand at 114m tall and have almost 30 floors. They are visible from anywhere in Madrid, and their main curiosity is that they are symmetrical, both of them leaning at 15º towards the same central point. Also on this square is the blue and yellow Castilla Tower, with a total of 24 floors, on the far west side of the square.
THE CALATRAVA OBELISK (PLAZA CASTILLA)
This 92m tall, 6m wide obelisk was designed by Santiago Calatrava, and was donated by Caja Madrid to the city of Madrid to celebrate the bank’s 300th anniversary. Set on the southern side of the square, when seen from Cuzco station as in this picture, the obelisk seems to be placed exactly between the two slanting towers of the Puerta de Europa. Its steel structure is made up of 12 turning rings that give the impression of creating waves as it slowly spins. The project was launched in 2004, but because of the busy metro stations underneath, the plans had to be altered, and construction finally ended in 2009. Further along this street we come to the four tallest towers in Madrid, also of recent construction.
M-30, M-40, M-50 RING ROADS
MADRID BARAJAS / ADOLFO SUAREZ INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
TAKE THE METRO INTO TOWN
FLIGHT CONNECTIONS TO MADRID
EXPRESS ARRIVAL FROM AIRPORT TO HIGH SPEED TRAIN: CORDOBA, SEVILLA, MALAGA, OR BARCELONA
PATRON SAINTS OF MADRID
The veneration of Madrid’s patron saints dates back to the earliest years of Christian domination. Legend tells that an image of the Virgin Mary was found on the outer city wall on the 9thof November, 1085 CE (463 AH), while San Isidro Labrador (b. circa 1070 CE, d. 1130 or 1172 CE), a Mozárabe farmworker born during the Muslim era, was a great devotee of the Virgen de la Almudena. Both are patron saints of Madrid.
This brings us back to the religious syncretism of this European capital, which has barely been studied but which is in plain evidence: the Virgin of the Almudena is the image of the Madrid cathedral, which is situated over the foundations of the ancient mosque of the citadel. The word Almudena is derived from Al-mudayna, meaning citadel in Arabic, and related to the worddin, or religion. SanIsidro Labrador could be a Hispanisation of Idris, probably referring to a local Muslim saint.
Although this was a fortified city, designed to control the border and protect the important city of Toledo, few vestiges of the Islamic or Mudéjar period remain. However, we will explore these on this tour, shining a light on a little-known aspect of this European capital’s Muslim past.
MINARET OF SAN MIGUEL DE LOS SERVITAS & THE MORERÍA:
Even though all that is left of the original building is its tower, the archaeological remains that have been found, together with its location, suggest that this 12thcentury Mudéjar church was built over one of the six mosques that existed in Majrit before the Christian conquest in 1083 CE (461 AH). This is why it is referred to historically as the only minaret that was preserved in the city, although this is not conclusively proven. What is evident is that it was built by thealarifes(Muslim builders and master craftsmen) that remained in the city after the Reconquista, on the condition that they continued their work as builders for the new Christian rulers.
At the end of the 11thcentury or beginning of the 12th, a second city wall was built around Madrid; it was described as the ‘Christian wall’, but constructed in the same style as the previous one, as it was the Mudéjars who were responsible for its construction. These Mudéjars lived in what would be the modern-day neighbourhood of La Latina, previously known as the Morería (Moorish quarter); in this district we can still find the Moorish gate and a square that bears the original name of the neighbourhood.
Tiles showing the names of squares in the original Moorish quarter of Madrid
The new name of this district came from an old hospital, but today it is better known as the most fashionable district in the capital, to which thousands of people flock every weekend to enjoy its atmosphere and itstapas.But while La Latina might be the correct name for the Mudéjar district, locally it is still known as La Morería.
La Morería is the neighbourhood where initially the Mozárabes (Arabised Christians) lived during Islamic times, and to which the Mudéjars (Muslims who remained after the Christian conquest) would later move when the city fell to Alfonso VI in 1083 CE (461 AH). This Spanish ruler gave the Muslims a generous degree of autonomy, allowing them to live according to their customs and traditions.
Muslim farmers, craftsmen, and builders crossed the city towards the valley of Las Vistillas to live in what had been the Mozárabe quarter, which was eventually incorporated into the citadel when Alfonso VI raised the new defensive walls around the suburb, protecting it from attack. The interior boundary of the Muslim quarter was delimited by a small stream that the Muslims called Majra, literally meaning ‘running water’ in Arabic – from which the Muslim name for the city, Majrit, was derived, and from there its modern name. This is where thehammamwas situated. This stream has long since dried up, and Calle Segovia was built over it.
12th century addition to the city walls; within these new precincts the Mudéjar quarter was found, also known as the Morería or Aljama quarter
In contemporary times, the layout of this neighbourhood allows us to distiguish its original street plan, splayed out around the Plaza del Alamillo, where the Islamic court of law was located. There were also two mosques on the sites where the churches of San Andrés and San Pedro el Viejo – with its magnificent Mudéjar tower, clearly recalling its Andalusi influences – stand today.
Mudéjar church of San Pedro el Viejo in the Morería district
An ancient Muslim water channel (qanat) from the 11th century is hidden in the Plaza de los Carros (shownbelow). Channels like these brought the water that lay under these rich soils out through underground conduits and carried it to distant agricultural fields for irrigation. This hydraulic supply system is one of the most important inheritances of Islamic Madrid, as it remained in use until the creation of the Isabel II canal.
Next to this old water channel we also find some of the almost 100 granaries and wells that have been found in excavations, which served to store foodstuffs until, much later, they were turned into rubbish dumps. Shards of Andalusi pottery have been found in these containers, which are now on display in the Museo de los Orígenes, located in the same district.
Muslim-era granaries in the centre of Madrid
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  • Calle Mayor
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  • Plaza Mayor
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  • Puerta del Sol
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  • Puerta de Alcala
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  • Plaza Castilla
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  • Plaza De Cibeles
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  • Estadio Santiago Bernabéu
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  • Nuevos Ministerios
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  • Islamic Cultural Center of Madrid
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  • Aeropuerto Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas (MAD)
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  • Monasterio San Pedro el Viejo - Iglesia San Pedro el Viejo
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  • Las Ventas Tour

MADRID

2nd day in Madrid

PUERTA DEL SOL (Bab Shams):
Close to Plaza Mayor,coming fromCalle Mayor, is perhaps the most central square in Madrid. It is also named after the former Muslim-era gate, the Puerta del Sol, or Gate of the Sun. This was the entrance to the heart of the original Islamic medina. Today, the Puerta del Sol is famous in Spain for being the place where many people come to celebrate New Year, afiestathat is transmitted live on all television channels and attracts the highest number of TV viewers in the entire year. Puerta del Sol is also famous for another detail, one that is small in size but large in significance: the Km 0 plaque, our next stop.
KM 0 & THE NATIONAL ROAD SYSTEM:
If you walk towards the centre of the square and look up, you will see a central building with a clock at the top of its facade. Under that is a large door providing access to the building, usually flanked by two uniformed Civil Guards in their traditional three-pointed hats, and beneath their feet, a few metres ahead, you will see a plaque made of coloured stone with bronze lettering. This marks the Km 0 or absolute beginning of the national road system in Spain. Six major roads start symbolically at this point, which are, clockwise: National 1 to Burgos, (North), N2 to Barcelona (North-East), N3 to Valencia (East), N4 to Andalusia (South), N5 to Extremadura & Portugal, and N6 to Galicia, Asturias, and the North-West.

MADRID

ATOCHA TRAIN STATION

ATOCHA:
Atocha is Madrid’s main railway station, connecting the capital with Barcelona, Cordoba, Seville and Malaga via the high-speed AVE line within a matter of 2-3 hours! It is also an interchange that connects Madrid’s local train and metro networks.
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  • Atocha

INFORMATION & DOCUMENTS

Historical Introduction

The scope and interest of Al-Andalus is immense since Al-Andalus was in fact the first monarchic democracy to be established in Europe, in the IXth Century. As a foundation stone of Europe and the modern world, we should try to come close to Al-Andalus, learn more about it. We might find clues about our world, how to live in it better and avoid falling into the same mistakes.
This is what Al-Andalus Experience is about, for you to get beyond the veils of your daily life and step into the true lands of Al-Andalus through it's generous heritage which can most be witnessed in Cordoba and Granada provinces.
Unfortunately there is a general miss culture which has lead to offering the worldwide public a'historicalpantomime' going as far as to bend history into a series of fables and chronicles which in many cases pay little tribute reality. This is well known to modern Spanish historians and researchers and we know exactly where the mistakes or'blackholes' are in both popular and official account of history. As an organization we are in touch with researchers and historians as well as publishers and editors, it is our intention to rediscover the true history of Al-Andalus and we’re working on several projects in this line. Through our tours we invite you to participate in the memory of Al-Andalus and also help you actively to discover it.
Al-Andalus Experience originally emerged partly due to the lack of a service that goes about solving logistic problems for Muslim travellers in Spain. A great part of our team and collaborators are of Muslim faith and religion, hence we appreciate the needs and interests of Muslim travellers.
It is evident that our world needs to go beyond the veils and prejudice of labels, to hold respect for the diverse nature of humanity, if we are to walk into a peaceful and blessed future.

Some More Specific Details

The biggest part of Spanish history is closely related to the history of Islam, especially after the Islamic history left eight centuries of an indelible mark in the Iberian Peninsula. This Islamic presence had different levels: after the rapid entry (711) and the establishment of the first group of Muslims, Cordoba becomes the most powerful city, the new province of a Muslim empire: al-Andalus. In the hands of the Umayyad dynasty, almost three centuries, the power gets more centred, the territory is administered, the economy develops and the society as a whole blossoms as a consequence of the Caliphate in Cordoba(929).The sharp fall from the Caliphate happens during the reyes taifas period that was facilitating the advancements of the Christians.
The capture of Toledo by the Castile (1085) would announce the beginning of the Reconquista byconfronting first one of the Berber empires, Almoravids, and eventually the Almohads. The defeat of the Muslims in 1212“LasNavas of Tolosa” battle made an end to their superiority in the peninsula. Nevertheless the last political Muslim entity remained for another three centuries: the Nasruddin kingdom in Granada.
The capitulation of Granada in 1492 saw its last Muslims living consequently under Christian domination, to be named“Moriscos”thereafter, before an expulsion by Royal Decree in 1609.
Most local Muslims here in Spain, nowadays believe that the invisible seeds sown by the Muslim saints during these centuries allowed the present communities to reap the fruits in our contemporary multicultural societies.

RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA, ARIANS AND TRINITARIANS

Because of the size and geography of the Iberian Peninsula, there has always been many different'pockets'of population. These pockets where extended around the country in a very decentralized and disperse manner. As to religion, the Visigoths where Arian – followers of Ario – a form of Christianity which had extended throughout the Roman Empire during the 4th century and which negated trinity, considering it a form of polytheism. Though there weren't confrontations with the so called'orthodoxChristians', the majority of Hispano-Roman population was Catholic, defenders of the idea of three personalities of one same God.
The global picture of Europe until then had been very divided, religious views within Christianity not being an exception. In the peninsula, thousands of slaves, many of whom were Germanic, joined with their kin, who had become the real masters of Spain. In this equation we must not forget about the large population of Jews which spread out through Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. The further the aristocratic power changed from milder Arianism to Catholicism, which was completing itself by the 8th century, times got worse for the Jews.
The Catholics where an aristocratic minority of only around 12% including clerics who held much corruption and confusion at this time, weak knowledge and lack of a consensus or any religious criteria. Moreover, they where opposed by a mass of what they considered as'heretic'Christian movements throughout the entire peninsula. Within the Visigoths there weren't only Arian Christians but also Priscilian, following another old Unitarian Christian, Priscilio, with similar views to Ario.

THE DECADENCE OF THE VISIGOTH KINGDOM AND THE FORMATION OF AL-ANDALUS.

Towards the beginning of the VIII Century, the Visigoth kingdom who's capital was Toledo, was in the midst of a political and social crisis provoked by the impoverishment of economy, frequent droughts, hunger in the lower classes, lack of prestige of the monarchs and how not, a rivalry in the noble class.
As the post of the throne was not hereditary but by appointment, the main noble families rivalled against each other to achieve it. Kings where frequently assassinated by members of the noble class who aspired to take the throne. This struggle ended weakening the Visigoth Kingdom. In this state of affairs, the king before last, Vitzia, tried to make the crown hereditary. As it happened, when he passed away, his young son Aguila was proclaimed king, but part of the noble class refused to accept him and put the charge onto a noble man named Rodrigo, duke of the Betic region, who was Catholic. In spite of his efforts, Rodrigo couldn't avoid a civil war breaking throughout the country. The sons of Vitzia had decided to get back in throne to whatever effect. From here the story becomes unclear and there are many elements of legend in it.
A common mistake is to think Northern Africa as being Berber in the modern understanding of the term, by the 8th Century. At this point Modern Morocco was indeed nothing but an extension of the Visigoth Kingdom, where population had been stirred in excess through increasing desertification of more Southern areas(ModernSahara). In any case, the monotheistic vision of Islam, a newly revealed religion, had already reached these lands along with a wave of cultural and scientific achievements from the more developed cities of Egypt and Damascus. These where Eastern cities which thrived ahead of their time in a cultural revolution, later to become the Islamic Golden Age.
Returning to the political state of affairs, it is at this point when the sons of Vitzia decided to seek help from the nearby Muslims to dethrone Rodrigo. The Archbishop of Seville, Oppas, uncle of Aguila - the dethroned son of Vitzia - asked his governor Count Don Julian of Ceuta to negotiate with the governor of North Africa under the Umayyad Dynasty of the Caliph Al-Walid I of Damascus, Musa Ibn Nusayr.
History tells us that in 711, Don Julian, Count of Ceuta, helped the Islamized Berber Tariq, the Lieutenant Colonel of Musa across the strait from Morocco to Spain. The sons of Vitzia, archbishop Oppas and other Gothic noblemen summed to a small group of Muslim troops which where commanded by Tariq. Since then the name given to the rock is Gibraltar, or JablTarr, Arabic for'Mountainof Tarr(iq)'.
It is not known how many Muslims went into Spain, some say only 400, others 7000, others 12.000 troops. The prior more likely and whoever they were, they were only relatively new Muslims since the new Prophet, Muhammad, had revealed the religion of Islam only 50 years before.
Another element that historians give importance to is the discomfort in the Jewish communities, many of which lived in exile around Tingitania, north of current Morocco. Many refugees from Iberia, both Jewish and Visigoth lived in Ceuta and many are likely to have joined the famous''Arabinvador'' troops into the Iberian Peninsula.
What conclusively explains such a speedy penetration into the peninsula, as well as the later permanence of Muslims in Spain, is the fact that the Unitarian Visigoths where much closer to eastern cultural revolution and the new Muslim faith, than to the alternative Roman Catholic Church. Hence they would give support to the allied army as they moved swiftly through the Peninsula from city to city.
The Muslims made a pact with noble Visigoths helping them to enter the peninsula, respecting their property, status and privileges. In just 3 years a mixed army of some 3 to 12 thousand men took power over the peninsula up to Zaragoza, and in one more year the entire peninsula was under Muslim government. Many towns opened their doors to the Muslims offering no resistance and in fact welcoming them as their rescuers, others surrendered through advantageous agreements.
An example of such agreements is that of a Visigoth duke, Theodomiro from Murcia, who could continue to govern in his territory – which was to be newly named Tudmir – after his agreement with the Muslims.
Musa, a charismatic figure himself, freshly invigorated by the cultural revolution in the east and moreover by the spirit of a newly revealed religion, would enter into Iberia in 712 C.E. further establishing an independent state from Rome. This was celebrated by the casting of new coins in Toledo stating the Quranic verses''Thereis no god but The God''(lailaha illa Allah),''Hewas not borne nor does he beget''(lamyalid wa lam yulad). These first Quranic verses casted onto Iberian coins where to express the one common thing between the three subsequent cultures living in al-Andalus. One same God worshipped by three cultures: Christian(mostlyUnitarian), Muslim and Jew. Al-Andalus was born.
It is paradoxical that the latest of the Councils of Toledo, number XVIII from 712, has been removed from the safely preserved Church archives and nothing is know of it. There is obvious speculation over what this Council document contained since this was the year when coins where cast in Toledo and the new independent state of al-Andalus was formed.
A famous battle in Covadonga in Asturias, was to later symbolize the resistance of a Catholic-Christian north Spain by the hands of the Asturian King Pelayo. Much in the same manner the battle of Tours in Poitiers 732 E.C, is generally remembered as: when Europe was saved from the Islamic advance, by merit of French Charles Martel. Though there remain many historical paradoxes, some say the battle was simply one of many battles between northern and southern Gales, each accusing the other of being'heretic';in a time when Spain and France were effectively'onesame land'.
From these independent Kingdoms in the north of Spain and in a parallel manner to the Crusades in the rest of Europe, the Catholic Kingdoms of Spain initiated the so called'Reconquista':A series of battles spread over 800 years whereby the Kingdoms of Aragon, Navarra, Castilla and Leon supported by the Church of Rome, steadily gained land over the'arabized'Spanish Muslim state.
On the other hand, within the newly named al-Andalus, in spite of Islam becoming the official religion of the new state, no one was forced to convert. On the contrary, Christians and Jews where allowed to practise their religions and even Muslims shared churches with the old Christians before building their own mosques. A minority of Catholics also remained, mostly religious clerics and monks.

THE COUCILS OF TOLEDO AND NICEA

The need for finding a unifying criteria in the diverse picture of Christian religion during the early middle ages forced the Church to form regular local Councils. The Councils where frequently gathered in order to adopt the necessary means to regulate constant abuses taken by the cleric and noblemen over the lower classes, as well as to learn about and eradicate'heresies'.The Councils where formed by select bishops and took place in Toledo. From Toledo the issues treated where taken to the supreme Council in Nice for further consensus by the Church in Rome.
It is well known about this period that Iberia, just as the rest of Europe lived a severe'darkage' in which human rights where abused on a regular basis by the Clerics, wealth and work were taxed at will by local Monarchs and epidemics where frequent. It was also a time when Iberia lived a profound religious crisis. Religion was divided within Christian faith itself and further, there was discomfort within the Jewish communities who where submitted to a miserable condition close to slavery.
In this state of affairs it shouldn't surprise anyone that there where XVII Councils in Toledo from 325 to 694-712, reflecting the needs for the Church to adapt and to solve the problems throughout the Peninsula
During the Council celebrated in 589, the division in Christianity was officially solved through the conversion of King Recaredo to Catholicism in 587 and Arianism was condemned as a'heresy'.From here on the documents have a constant mention about Christian'heretics',through which we learn that they where'UnitarianChristians', followers of Ario. This and other descriptions of the Arian doctrine which are issued in the Councils, where otherwise completely wiped out during the later'Inquisition'.
The climate in the VII century didn't get any better. The clergy and the two main Visigoth noble families, that of Wamba and Chindasvinto, where divided into Arian(Unitarian)and Catholic(Trinitarian).An interesting characteristic of the Visigoth kingship is that the crown was not hereditary, but through appointment by council of clerics. The king before last, Vitzia, was of an Arian Christian profession as was his inheritor Aguila. After Vitzia's death, Aguila took the throne but however, shortly after, it was given to Rodrigo who was Catholic. This is thought to be the straw that broke the camel's back.